Introduction
Why study diet in cohort and longitudinal population studies?
Diet is a major modifiable health behaviour that can impact a wide variety of health outcomes [2]. The studies in the CLOSER partnership provide a resource in which both drivers and consequences of dietary intake can be explored. Together they also provide opportunities to examine longitudinal and secular trends in dietary intake.
Timeline of diet-related events in the UK
(Adapted from Foster & Lunn (2007) [14])
| Decade | Political/societal events | Nutritional reports/regulations |
|---|---|---|
| 1940s | Second World War (1939–1945); WFS introduced (1940); Rationing begins (1940); Labour Government (1945); Heathrow airport opens (1946); First self‐service supermarket opens (1947); National Health Service established (1948) | Mandatory fortification of margarine with vitamins A and D began (1942); National Food Survey established (1940); Nutritional standards for school meals introduced (1941); First Food Labelling Order (1944) |
| 1950s | Conservative Government (1951); London smog (1952); Watson and Crick publish the structure of DNA (1953); End of rationing (1954); Treaty of Rome establishes EEC and CAP (1957); 24% of households own a fridge | Nutritional allowances set by BMA (1950) |
| 1960s | 31% of households owned one or more cars (1961); Labour Government (1964); Eligibility of WFS was restricted to those who received some form of benefit (1968) | Bread and Flour regulations (1963); Launch of the first margarine rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (1964); British Nutrition Foundation established (1967); COMA established (1968); Recommended Nutrient Intakes set by COMA (1969) |
| 1970s | General Household Survey started (1970); Conservative Government (1970); Decimalisation (1971); Energy crisis (1973); 3‐day week (1973); Labour Government (1974); UK accession to EEC and became part of CAP (1973); Drought (1975/76); Conservative Government (1979); 40% of households own a freezer (1979) | Burkitt hypothesis – emphasis switching to preventative nutrition (1972); COMA report on Diet and Heart Health (1974); Recommended Daily Amounts set by COMA (1979) |
| 1980s | The Black report highlights inequalities in health (1980); Andreisson CAP reform introduces milk quotas and voluntary set‐aside (1987/88); Salmonella food scare (1988); 50% of households own a microwave | Food‐based guidelines replace nutritional standards for school meals (1980); NACNE report published (1983); COMA report on Diet and Cardiovascular Disease (1984); Introduction of foods with a healthier nutritional profile, e.g. low fat, reduced sugar (1985); COMA report on Dietary Sugars and Human Disease (1989) |
| 1990s | Health of the Nation published (1992); Nutrition Taskforce set up (1992); MacSharry CAP reform (1992); Fairtrade foundation established in UK (1992); First official use of the term “food deserts” in policy report from the Nutrition Taskforce’s Low Income Project Team (1995); BSE food scare (1995/6); Labour Government (1997); 72% households owned one or more cars (1998); Saving Lives – Our Healthier Nation published (1999); Policy Action Team report 13 published citing problems of poor food access in low income neighbourhoods (1999) | Dietary Reference Values set by COMA (1991); COMA report on the Nutritional Aspects of Cardiovascular Disease(1994); Folic acid labelling scheme introduced (1997); WCRF report (1997); COMA report on the Nutritional Aspects of the Development of Cancer (1998) |
| 2000s | FSA established (2000); The Trussel Trust set up their first foodbank (2000); 5-a-day campaign launched by DH (2003); EU enlargement (2004); National School Fruit and Vegetable scheme rolled out across primary schools (2004); Choosing Health – Making Healthier Choices Easier published (2004); The Trussel Trust Foodbank Network founded (2004); Healthy Start scheme launched to replace the WFS (2006); School Food Trust established (2006); Change4Life campaign launched by DH (2009) | COMA report on Folic Acid and the Prevention of Disease (2000); Establishment of SACN (2000); Reintroduction of nutritional standards for school meals (2001); SACN report on Salt and Health (2003); SACN report on Folate and Disease Prevention (2006); DH Healthy Living Strategy introduced (2007); Ofcom ban on adverts for foods high in fat, salt, and sugar during television programmes aimed at children aged under 16 years (2007); FSA set voluntary salt reduction targets for 2012 for 80 food categories (2008); The concept of ultra-processed foods first published in the journal Public Health Nutrition (2009) |
| 2010s | Conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition government (2010); Fair Society, Healthy Lives (The Marmot Review) published (2010); Policy paper “Healthy Lives, Healthy People: A Call to Action on Obesity in England” published (2011); Deliveroo established in the UK (2013); Uber Eats established in the UK (2014); UK voted to leave the European Union in a referendum (2016); Conservative government (2017 & 2019); Increase in vegetarian and vegan diets, with a decrease in the average amount of meat eaten between 2008-2019 [15]. | SACN reports on Iron and Health, Early Life Nutrition, and Dietary Reference Values for Energy (2011); Traffic light labelling on pre-packaged food introduced, but not mandatory (2013); WHO issue new guidance on dietary salt and potassium (2013); DH set new voluntary salt reduction targets beyond 2012 for 76 food categories (2014); WCRF and NCD Alliance report on link between food, nutrition, diet and NCDs (2014); SACN Carbohydrates and Health Report (2015); PHE publish The Eatwell Guide alongside government recommendations for energy and nutrients for males and females aged 1–18 years and 19+ years (2016); SACN Folic acid updated recommendations (2017); Soft Drinks Industry Levy comes into effect (2018); SACN Feeding in the first year of life report (2018); SACN Saturated fats and health report (2019); Ofcom ban on adverts for foods high in fat, salt, and sugar on the Transport for London network (2019) |
| 2020s | UK left the European Union (2020); COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns (2020-2022); UK Government introduced the Eat Out to Help Out Scheme (2020); Increase in takeaways and meal delivery during the pandemic, which remained after the pandemic (2020+); Increased awareness and discussion of (ultra-)processed foods (2020+); PHE closure and transfer of its functions to the UK Health and Security Agency and the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities (2021); The Trussel Trust reports a 37% increase in demand for food parcels from its foodbanks (2021-2023) [16]; House of Lords Select Committee on Food, Diet and Obesity appointed (2024) | Government publishes new strategy for tackling obesity (2020); Salt reduction targets for 2024 for 84 food categories published by PHE (2020); SACN report on lower carbohydrate diets for type 2 diabetes (2021); Large out-of-home food businesses required to display calorie information on menus and food labels (2022); SACN statement on processed foods and health (2022); SACN report on feeding young children ages 1 to 5 years (2024) |
Acronyms: BMA: British Medical Association; CAP: Common Agricultural Policy; COMA: Committee on the Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition; DH: Department of Health; EEC: European Economic Community; EU: European Union; FSA: Food Standards Agency; NACNE: National Advisory Committee on Nutrition Education; NCD: Non-Communicable Disease; PHE: Public Health England; SACN: Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition; WCRF: World Cancer Research Fund; WHO: World Health Organisation; WFS: Welfare Food Scheme.